Educational Focus: Report cards

Most high schools have recently finished the first half of the school year. We call this the first semester of the school year. Like colleges and universities, high schools base their courses on a half-year, or semester, system. Some schools (usually grade schools) use a quarter system instead of semesters. Either way, mid-January still marks the middle of the school year. The fall semester starts at the end of August (or, sometimes, the beginning of September) and ends either in December (for colleges and universities) or mid-January (for high schools). At the end of each semester, students usually take a cumulative final exam. This cumulative final exam tests the students over all the material that they were supposed to learn for that semester. After the students have taken the tests and the teachers have graded the tests, the teacher will calculate the semester grade and record it in the student’s report card.

Nowadays, report cards are generated by computer and mailed directly to the student’s parents. Before school had computers, student report cards were written by hand on a card. The card had lines on which were written the student’s name, the teacher’s name, the class, and all the subjects which the student had. Typical subject would be arithmetic (math, or mathematics), history, science, social studies, English, art, music, and PE (physical education).

The possible grades that a student could get in a subject were A (best grade), B, C, D, or F (worst). Letter grades could also be given a “+” or “–” to indicate “somewhat above” or “somewhat below.” Thus, the entire range of grades, from best to worst, would be: A+, A, A–, B+, B, B–, C+, C, C–, D+, D, D–, F. A grade of “F” indicates failure. A student who got an “F” is said to have “flunked.”

Sometimes, a report card might also have a separate space for “effort.” Here the teacher indicates how hard the student worked to earn his grade. This mark for effort is not really a grade. It is a comment about the student’s attitude to the parents. So, a student might have gotten a “C” in a subject, and an “A” or “1” for effort. This tells the parents that the student had put forth his best effort anyhow. On the other hand, a student might have gotten an “A+” in a subject and yet received only a “2” or even a “3” for effort. This would indicate that perhaps the student needs to be challenged more. Maybe the class is too easy for him!

When report cards were written by hand, the teacher passed out the report cards for the students to take home. The students had to take the report cards home to show their parents. One of the parents had to sign the report card. Then the student brought it back to school and returned it to the teacher. At the end of the school year, the parents did not have to sign the report card. Since school was over, the student could keep the report card. For the final report card, the teacher would write at the end something like “Promoted to Grade 5” to indicate that the student successfully finished Grade 4, and could start the next school year in the next higher grade.

Educational Focus: Snow Days

Many places in the United States get snow in the winter. If it is very cold, like this year, even states like Texas or Florida can get snow. Sometimes there is so much snow that is it difficult or dangerous to drive. If this happens, schools often declare a “snow day.” When a school has a snow day, classes are canceled for that day, and children don’t have to attend.

How much snow is necessary to get a snow day? It depends. In southern states like Texas or Florida, drivers are not used to driving in snow. Also, most southern towns would probably not have snow plows or other equipment to clear the roads of snow. Consequently, even only a few centimeters of snow would create dangerous driving for most drivers in southern states. Children living in these states would most likely get a snow day if there were only a few centimeters of snow.

Northern states like Minnesota or North Dakota, though, are accustomed to winter driving with lots of snow, so a few centimeters of snow would mean nothing to them. Snow plows come and clear the roads, but sometimes they only put out salt or gravel if it is a minor amount of snow. Children living in these states would probably not get a snow day if there were only a few centimeters of snow. It would have to snow a lot more – maybe 15 cm or so – before the schools would consider granting a snow day. If there is a lot of wind, though, the snow can form big drifts, which would make the roads difficult or dangerous to drive. So if there is drifting snow, children would probably get a snow day.

Sometimes a snow day is declared because the weather is very cold, instead of because of the snow. Some Januarys have several days where the temperature stays below -25 degrees Celsius. Even the high temperature of the day doesn’t get above -20 – that is extremely cold!! In these cases, it is too cold to walk to school, or to wait outside for a school bus to come. So sometimes schools will also cancel classes due to extreme cold.

Of course, most children enjoy playing in the snow and having a day off from school. And you can be sure that if a student hasn’t studied for a test as much as he should, he will fervently hope for a snow day to give him some extra study time!

Education Focus: Winter Break

Today is Monday, January 4. For many American students in elementary school and high school, it is the first school day of the new year. This year, most students’ Christmas vacation (here in Illinois) was from 12/21 through 1/1. This means that their last day of school before Christmas was 12/18, and their first day back to school was 1/4.

Schools generally give about two weeks’ vacation around Christmas time. So most students get two weeks off to relax, get together with friends, and maybe go on a family vacation. Some families go to Florida or someplace warm for a Christmas vacation. Other families like spend their winter vacation skiing or doing some other outdoor winter activity. This year, because of the poor economy, most families probably stayed home and enjoyed time with one another and with friends.

College and university students usually have a longer Christmas break. Their semester ends around the second week of December. After they finish their final exams, they head home. It is very convenient to have the finals prior to winter break. Then students don’t have to study on their vacation. Some college students might take the opportunity to earn some money by working on their Christmas break. But many college students spend their winter vacation sleeping late (“sleeping in”), enjoying Mom’s home cooking, meeting with friends who are attending other colleges or universities, and relaxing.

Christmas vacation is a good time for students to relax and have some fun before they go back to school and work hard in the spring semester.

Education Focus: ACT

In this Educational Focus, let’s take a look at the other college aptitude test that American juniors and seniors typically take as part of the college admissions process: the ACT.

First given in 1959, the ACT is not as well known as the SAT, even though it is accepted by all four-year colleges and universities in the U.S. As a general rule, colleges and universities on the East and West Coasts tend to prefer the SAT, whereas the ACT is the test of choice for students planning on attending schools in the Midwest and South.

Like the SAT, the ACT is administered on a Saturday, and students who cannot take the test on Saturday for religious reasons can request at registration to take the test the following Sunday. The test is generally offered six times a year: September, October, December, February, April, and June.

The format and scoring of the ACT differs from the SAT. Students taking the ACT are tested in four areas: English, Math, Reading, and Science Reasoning, with an optional writing portion that was added in 2005. The scores for each subject range from 1 – 36. In addition to individual subject scores, students also receive a composite score, which is the average of all four tests. All the subject tests (with the exception of the writing test, of course) are multiple choice tests. Unlike the SAT, however, there is no penalty for wrong answers, so it is advantageous to guess if one does not know the answer.

English

The English section of the test is 45 minutes in length, and consists of 75 questions on usage, grammar, punctuation, and rhetorical skills.

Mathematics

The mathematics section of the test is 60 questions and 60 minutes in length. Topics covered include pre-algebra, elementary algebra, intermediate algebra, coordinate geometry, geometry, and elementary trigonometry. Calculators are permitted, but only if they are not on a list of prohibited models, or are modified according to the ACT’s calculator policy. The mathematics section is the only section in which there are five answer choices rather than four.

Reading

The reading section of the test is 35 minutes in length, and consists of 40 questions based on reading comprehension. Types of reading passages include prose fiction, social science, humanities, and natural science.

Science Reasoning

The science reasoning section of the test is also a 40-question, 35-minute test. Rather than testing specific scientific knowledge, students are asked to read passages of a more technical or scientific nature, and then answer questions based on these passages. The questions are designed to assess the student’s ability to interpret, analyze, and evaluate the information in the passages, as well as test the student’s ability to reason and solve problems.

Writing (Optional)

The optional writing section of the ACT mirrors that of the SAT. It is 30 minutes long, and students are to write an essay based on a given prompt. Two readers each evaluate the essay and assign it a score of 1 – 6 (6 being best). Essays that are blank, off-topic, not written in English, not written in no. 2 pencil, or illegible automatically receive a score of 0.

Although the ACT is an assessment for students planning to attend college, some states, such as Colorado and Illinois, require all high school students (whether or not they intend to go to college) to take the ACT as a way of assessing school performance.

Based on data from college-bound seniors who took the ACT in 2006, the median composite score was between 20 and 21. Students who scored 28 or better were in the 90th percentile (meaning that students with a score of 28 or more were in the upper 10% of all test-takers).

There is no official conversion chart between SAT scores and ACT scores; however, some colleges have established their own charts, based on scores of students who took both tests. For comparison, the following is a chart used by the University of California:

SAT (out of 1600)........ACT Composite

1600................................36
1560-1590.....................35
1520-1550.....................34
1480-1510.....................33
1440-1470.....................32
1400-1430.....................31
1360-1390.....................30
1320-1350.....................29
1280-1310.....................28
1240-1270.....................27
1200-1230.....................26
1160-1190.....................25
1120-1150.....................24
1080-1110.....................23
1040-1070.....................22
1000-1030.....................21
960-990.........................20
920-950.........................19
880-910.........................18
840-870.........................17
800-830.........................16
760-790.........................15
720-750.........................14
680-710.........................13
640-670.........................12
600-630.........................11

Education Focus: SAT

For this week’s educational focus, I want to take a look at two tests that are important for American high school juniors and seniors: the SAT and the ACT. Both of these tests are college aptitude tests; that is, performance on one or both of these tests is said to give an indication how well the student can perform academically at the college or university level. As such, these tests are frequency used in the college admissions process, and students spend a lot of time (and sometimes, money) to prepare themselves for the test in order to get a good score. This week, we’ll focus specifically on the SAT.

The SAT is the older, and more well-known, of the two tests. The exam has undergone several changes since it was first administered in 1901, the most recent change occurring in 2005. Currently, the SAT consists of three parts, each part having a score ranging from 200 – 800 points: 1) Critical Reading, 2) Mathematics, and 3) Writing. Thus, a score of 2400 points represents a perfect score on the SAT. There are 10 sub-sections to the test, including an experimental 25-minute section that is not scored, but used for the purpose of planning new tests. The timed portions of the entire test make the test 3 hours and 45 minutes long, so the tests are given on Saturdays according to the schedule set by the Educational Testing Service (the company that administers the exam). Students who cannot take the test on Saturdays for religious reasons (for example, Jewish students) can apply to take a special make-up test.

Critical Reading

The Critical Reading section of the test (formerly, the Verbal section on older tests), consists of three scored sections: two 25-minute sections, and one 20-minute section. In this section, questions may be sentence completion questions, which serve to test the student’s vocabulary, and reading comprehension questions based on long or short reading passages.

Mathematics

The Mathematics section also consists of three scored sections: two 25-minute sections, and one 20-minute section. One of the longer sections has 20 questions, all multiple choice; the other 25-minute section has 8 multiple choice questions and 10 “grid-in” questions (questions where the student must calculate an answer and fill in the computer-readable blank). The final, shorter section has 16 multiple choice questions. The contents of the Mathematics sections are: number and operations; algebra and functions; geometry; statistics, probability, and data analysis.

Writing

The Writing section consists of a 35-minute multiple choice section and a 25-minute essay section. The multiple choice section tests the student’s ability to improve sentences and paragraphs, as well as identify errors (such as diction, grammar, sentence construction, subject-verb agreement, proper word usage, and wordiness). In the essay section, the student is expected to write an essay that develops a point of a view on an issue, and then use reasoning and evidence (based on personal experience, reading, or observation) to support his ideas. In his essay, the student should be able to organize and express ideas clearly, develop and support his main idea, as well as use appropriate word choice and sentence structure.

Scoring

As mentioned previously, scores on each section of the SAT range from 200 – 800 points. One thing that is unique about the SAT’s multiple choice questions is that responses are scored to minimize any benefit from random guessing. Multiple choice questions have five possible answers, and correct answers are awarded 1 point, whereas incorrect answers are penalized with a –1/4 point. Thus, if a student has absolutely no idea what the correct answer to a question is, he is advised to skip the question and leave it blank. On the other hand, if a student can eliminate even one of the possible answer choices, he improves his chances enough to overcome the negative 1/4 point penalty.

The negative point penalty applies only to multiple choice questions. Grid-in questions on the Mathematics section are not penalized for incorrect answers, and students are encouraged to make an educated guess if they do not know the answer.

The essay portion of the Writing section is scored on a scale of 1 – 6 (1: poor, 6: best), based on the overall quality of the essay. Two readers each give a score to the essay, so the essay’s total score can range from 2 – 12 points. Essays that are not written on the essay assignment, are blank, not written in English, not written with a Number 2 pencil, or are illegible, are automatically given a score of 0.

Originally, the test was scaled to make a score of 500 the mean on each section, with a standard deviation of 100. However, SAT scores have been steadily declining since the 1960’s: at its peak in 1963, the average SAT score was 980 (out of 1600); by the 1990’s, the average Verbal score was 428, and the average Math score was 478 – both well below the intended mean of 500 points. Consequently, in 1995 the test was “recentered” to bring the average score on each section back up to 500. Critics have pointed out that manipulating the scores like this masks the fact that compared to previous generations, today’s students are scoring poorly, and thus are not as well-prepared for college as their parents were.

Next week, we’ll take a look at the alternative to the SAT: the ACT.

Education Focus: Graduation

For this week’s educational focus, I want to take a look at graduation. “Graduation” just means that the student has completed the necessary work for a particular grade level, and can then be moved up to the next level. However, when you say the word “graduation,” most people will think of a specific ceremony marking the end of a particular stage in a student’s life, and his moving on to the next stage. This “moving on” is also called “commencement,” and the graduation ceremony is also often called “commencement exercises.”

In the American educational system, the transition from junior high school to high school, from high school to college, and from college to the working world are all marked by graduation ceremonies. Thus, we have 8th grade graduation, high school graduation, and college graduation. For the ceremony, the graduates (the students who are moving on) march in to solemn music (traditionally, “Pomp and Circumstance” by Elgar – midi, or see Wikipedia’s sample (which is played too fast for commencement exercises) at the bottom of its page) and take their seat in an auditorium. All the graduates are dressed in cap and gown, with a tassel hanging from the right side of the cap. Various speeches are given by the principal or other school officials, the valedictorian (the top-ranked student in the class), and the salutatorian (the student who is ranked second in the class). Sometimes, in the case of a college graduation ceremony, a notable person may be awarded an honorary degree from the school (for outstanding work in a particular field, for example), and then that person would most likely give a speech as well. The speeches tend to be motivational, encouraging the students to continue to do their best and be a positive influence wherever they may be. After all the speeches, the students line up to get their diploma (the symbol of the degree that they earned), and the principal or dean reads off the names of the graduates. As his name is called, the graduate crosses the stage, shakes hands and accepts the diploma, and switches his tassel from the right side to the left. The switching of the tassel symbolizes that the student is now a graduate. Afterwards, the student steps off the stage and returns to his seat. When all the students have received their diplomas, they are presented to the audience by the dean or principal: “I now present to you the class of [year],” and many graduates then throw their caps in the air in celebration.

The graduate’s family often prepares some sort of celebration as well, and graduation parties are very common. Particularly in the case of 8th grade and high school graduations, it is common to have a graduation picnic or pool party for the whole class. Many parents also give a nice graduation gift to their graduate, such as money, a new bicycle, or other reward for having successfully completed school.

Educational Focus: Homeschooling

For this week’s educational focus, I want to take a look at homeschooling. In the U.S., it is legal to teach your children at home rather than send them to a school. A growing number of parents have decided to homeschool their children. It is difficult to determine how many children are being homeschooled, since many states don’t require homeschoolers to register. Estimates range from 900,000—2,000,000, but a reasonable estimate would put the figure in the neighborhood of 1.2 million children being homeschooled as of 2007.

As stated above, it is legal in all 50 states to homeschool children; however, different states have different requirements for homeschooling. Some states require that a parent obtain state certification in teaching; other states don’t require teacher certification, but insist that homeschool students take the same yearly assessment tests as the ones given to public school students. Still others require that homeschool students follow a state-approved curriculum, or be “in class” a certain number of hours a day or a certain number of days per year. In Illinois, homeschools are considered “private schools,” and there are only two requirements: 1) that the branches of education or subjects taught in a private school be equivalent to those being taught in the public schools, and 2) that the daily instruction of a child in a private school be in the English language. This makes Illinois one of the easiest states in which to homeschool your children, since there is minimal government interference, and parents have maximal control over what and how their children are taught.

The reasons why parents choose to homeschool are essentially the same as why parents opt for private over public schools: Concerns for the quality of education, concerns over violence in school and negative influences from peers, regards for religious beliefs, and interest in alternative teaching philosophies are all reasons why some parents choose homeschooling.

Naturally, people have concerns regarding homeschooled children. Do they do as well academically as students attending a public or private school? How can homeschooled children develop a healthy social life without the interaction of their peers in a regular school setting? How can parents offer the same variety and depth of instruction as regular schools? These are valid concerns, but they do not pose as much of a problem as people generally think. Let’s look at these concerns one by one.

Concern #1: Academics – Do homeschooled students do as well academically as students attending a regular school? Since not all parents are trained to be teachers, or even have a college degree, are they qualified to teach their children at home?

Answer: Believe it or not, the level of parental education or lack of teacher qualification has little, if any, negative effect on homeschool children’s academic performance. In fact, studies indicate that on a national basis, homeschoolers perform at least one grade level higher than their counterparts in private and public schools. One reason for this might be that by being schooled at home, children benefit from the individual instruction and attention – individual instruction and attention that are simply impossible in a class of 25 or more students. Other reasons might be that with individual instruction, children can concentrate on areas or subjects that need additional attention, rather than waste time reviewing concepts that the child has a good grasp on.

Concern #2: Social Development – Are homeschooled children able to develop a healthy social life without the interaction of their peers in a regular school setting?

Answer: Most homeschooled children in fact have better social skills than those of their peers in regular school. People tend to think that homeschool students are isolated from others, sitting at a desk at home for several hours a day. In reality, homeschoolers are generally a very interactive group, whether it’s getting together for joint field trips with other homeschoolers or taking swimming lessons at the local YMCA. Many homeschoolers also participate in co-op classes, where (for example), they get together once a week to study chemistry, or some other class in a more advanced subject. Consequently, homeschoolers tend to have better interaction not only with their peers, but with young and old alike. This is in contrast to a regular school setting, where students’ social interaction is limited almost exclusively to their own peer group, and thus is an artificially induced social group.

Concern #3: Depth and Variety of Instruction – How can parents offer the same variety and depth of instruction as regular schools?

Answer: There are various ways for parents to provide a broad, liberal education. As mentioned earlier, many homeschoolers participate in co-op classes for subjects like chemistry, physics, foreign languages, and other advanced subjects. Some colleges allow homeschooled students to enroll in specialty subjects. And of course the Internet gives homeschoolers access to information, materials, and online classes in ways that were unimaginable a decade ago. Additionally, homeschoolers have the time and freedom to pursue areas of interest to them, instead of focusing on taking classes and earning credits for graduation.

Educational Focus: Private Schools

For our educational focus this week, I want to look at private schools. Private schools are an alternative to public schools. There are private schools at every level of education, from private pre-schools and kindergartens all the way to private high schools and universities.

Public schools are funded almost exclusively from taxing residents in various ways. Private schools, on the other hand, derive their funds from a variety of sources, including tuition, grants, and endowments. Sometimes private schools accept money from the government (in the form of grants, for example). Usually, though, private schools avoid accepting public money, because they consider it an invasion of liberty. If a private school accepts money from the government, then the government could take more control over what is taught in the school, and even how it is taught. Therefore, to minimize government interference, private schools tend to avoid taxpayer funding.

Different private schools have different motivations for being private. Many private schools are affiliated with a church or other religious group, providing religious education and education from a religious perspective. Other private schools are strictly secular, but wish to educate children according to an alternative teaching philosophy. Still other private schools focus on providing an elite or rigorous education, with an emphasis on preparing its students for admission into a top-ranked university such as Harvard or Yale. Some schools are military academies, which teach discipline and respect alongside academic subjects.

Just as there are many different motivations for operating a private school, so parents have different motives for sending their children to private schools. Some parents want a religious education for their children, or want their children to be educated in accordance with their religious beliefs. Other parents are concerned that public schools do not provide enough of an academic challenge. Some parents don’t want to expose their children to negative influences like drugs, violence, or other anti-social behavior. Still other parents may want to send their children to a military academy to help the student learn discipline and self-control. And yet other parents may want to send their kids to an elite school to give the children an edge when it comes time to apply to college.

Although each state has its own regulations governing the qualifications of private schools, in general the education at private schools tends to be as good as, if not better than, that of public schools. Scores on college admission tests such as the SAT and ACT demonstrate that the quality of a private school education meets or exceeds that of public schools.

Educational Focus: American Education System, Part 4

Today for our Education Focus, I want to take a quick look at a popular alternative to a four-year college or university: the community college, also known as a junior college.

A community college, or junior college, is a two-year institution that grants a two-year degree, also known as an associate’s degree. Like the bachelor’s and master’s degrees, one can earn an associate’s degree in arts (A.A.) or an associate’s degree in science (A.S.). Community colleges are typically local schools that are supported by the county or community, and as such do not have boarding students. With few exceptions, all the students are commuter students (students who live off campus – usually with parents, or spouses – and drive (commute) to school each day). A community college does not offer advanced degrees, but instead focuses on general education requirements that all students need to take as part of a well-rounded curriculum.

Community colleges are popular because they offer a less-expensive alternative to attending a college or university for a full four years. To save money, students will take lower-level classes at their community college, then transfer the credits to a four-year college or university. If a student is planning to transfer, he must consult with an academic advisor to make sure that all his credits will transfer to the school of his choice. Alternatively, the student can complete the community college’s degree requirements for the associate’s degree, and then he won’t have to worry about whether or not the credits will transfer – his associate’s degree will be accepted at most four-year colleges and universities.

Another reason why students might choose to attend a community college first before going on to a four-year college or university is that it can give him a chance to improve his transcript. Sometimes a student doesn’t do as well as he could have done in high school, which might hurt his chances in being accepted at the school of his choice. If he attends a community college and improves his academic record there, an admissions officer at a four-year college or university would be more likely to place greater emphasis on the community college academic record than the high school academic record.

A final reason why some students attend a community college rather than a four-year institution is simply because he is interested in a vocation that needs some additional training, but doesn’t need the rigorous academic training that a four-year college or university provides. Vocations like auto mechanic, cook/chef, and nursing or dental assistants would be in this category. These types of vocations are especially popular with what are called “non-traditional” students – students who are returning to school after having spent time in the workforce or raising a family. These students tend to have jobs already, and are looking for the extra classes to obtain certification or get a raise in salary.

Educational Focus: American Education System, Part 3

This time, we’ll take a brief look at the American Educational System and graduate school. Last time, we saw that post-secondary education generally involves attending a college or university and earning a B.S. (Bachelor of Science) or a B.A. (Bachelor of Arts) degree. For most students, this represents the final stage of their education.

Others, however, choose to continue by attending graduate school. Certain areas, such as law, medicine, and other academic pursuits, require an advanced degree such as an M.S. / M.A. (Master of Science / Master of Arts) or a Ph.D. (Doctor of Philosophy). In particular, a Ph.D. is required to teach in a tenured position at most colleges and universities. Furthermore, anyone who is interested in doing research at a major company almost certainly needs a Ph.D. as well. Likewise, earning a master’s degree gives one the advantage of having a higher salary in the workplace, and opens up doors of opportunity that might otherwise remain closed.

To earn a master’s degree, one typically takes courses for two years beyond the bachelor’s degree. The exact courses required depends on what area the master’s is in. One significant difference between courses at the bachelor’s level and those at the master’s level is that the focus is exclusively on the student’s concentration – students in the mathematics master’s program will take classes in upper-level mathematics (statistics, algebra, or analysis, depending on the particular emphasis), students in the law school will take upper-level law classes, and so on. Another difference is that classes at the master’s level and beyond are much more rigorous, and therefore require much more study. Accordingly, most graduate students take only 3 three-hour classes, or perhaps 4 classes per semester. Upon completing the requirements for a master’s degree, the student generally has two options:

1) Take comprehensive examinations. These exams (“comps”) provide a complete testing of all that the student was required to learn in the course of his master’s studies. To earn a degree, the master’s student must pass his comps – 60% for passing is typical. If the student doesn’t pass his comps, he has up to one year to study again and retake the test. Failing the comps means that the degree will not be awarded.

2) Write a master’s thesis. Instead of taking comps, the student may choose to write a thesis. The student consults with his faculty advisor, who helps him by suggesting suitable topics and guiding him through the various stages of writing the thesis.

Earning a Ph.D. typically requires two years beyond a master’s degree, or a total of four years beyond the bachelor’s degree. Doctoral students take many of the same courses that master’s students take, plus additional courses as required by the college or department he is enrolled in. In the first few years, doctoral students concentrate on taking the core courses necessary for passing their qualifying examinations (“qualifiers”). Once the doctoral student has passed his qualifiers, he has completed one of the major steps towards earning his Ph.D. After the qualifiers, his next hurdle is to write his doctoral dissertation. Like a master’s student writing his thesis, the doctoral student receives guidance and assistance from his faculty advisor in researching, writing, and preparing his doctoral dissertation. Once the dissertation is completed, the doctoral student must defend his dissertation in front of a panel consisting of certain members of the faculty. If he has defended his dissertation to the satisfaction of the panel, he has successfully completed the requirements for a Ph.D., and will be recognized as a Doctor of Philosophy.

Educational Focus: American Education System, Part 2

Last week we looked at the American Educational System from Kindergarten through High School. Today we’ll take a brief look at post-secondary education in the U.S.: American colleges and universities.

After completion of high school, many students continue their education by attending a college or a university. Although most people use the terms interchangeably, there is a difference between a college and a university. A college generally has a smaller student enrollment and consists of one school (the college). On the other hand, a university usually has a larger student enrollment and consists of several schools: for example, a typical university can have a college of liberal arts and sciences, a college of engineering, and a college of education. For the student there is little practical difference; both colleges and universities are degree-granting institutions, enabling their graduates to have better job prospects than they would otherwise with only a high school education.

When a student attends college/university, he chooses a major, or area of concentration and specialization. Many different types of majors are available. Ideally, a student chooses his major first (or at least has some idea of what he’d like to concentrate on), and then chooses a school based on major he’d like to study. Typical majors would include: engineering (mechanical engineering, industrial engineering, electrical engineering, or chemical engineering), physics, chemistry, biology, pre-med, pre-law, history, English/literature, a foreign language, education, mathematics, statistics, computer science/IT, physical education, physical therapy, accounting, business, marketing, hotel and restaurant management, fashion design, fine arts (music, art, theater), and nursing. Each major has its own degree requirements in addition to the general education requirements of the college/university. Students can double major (complete the requirements for two majors simultaneously) or major in one area and minor in another.

Like high school, most students take four years to complete the degree requirements, and so we have the corresponding classes for college/university: first-year students are freshmen, second-year students are sophomores, third-year students are juniors, and fourth-year students are seniors. Freshmen and sophomores are underclassmen; juniors and seniors are upperclassmen. In reality, four years to complete the degree is an average. Some students may complete their degree early by taking summer school and interim classes; others may take longer than four years due to poor schedules, having to repeat courses, or by working on two majors. Consequently, in college, years are determined largely by how many credit hours one has. Each course is worth a set number of credit hours; for example, a course that meets three hours per week for the semester would be worth three credit hours. The more courses a student takes, the more credit hours he earns upon completion of the course. 12 – 15 credit hours are considered a normal (full-time) class load, and would be the equivalent of four or five classes of three credit hours each. In addition to the time spent in class, students are expected to spend a minimum of two hours study outside of class for every hour spent in class. Thus, 12 – 15 credit hours represent a minimum of 36 – 45 hours each week that a student should devote to his education.

After completing the degree requirements as set forth by the college/university, students are awarded a bachelor’s degree. A bachelor’s degree is the lowest post-secondary degree awarded by four-year institutions like colleges and universities. A student typically earns either a bachelor of arts degree (B.A.) or a bachelor of science degree (B.S.). There is little practical difference between a B.A. and a B.S., as most employers are satisfied that their employees have a degree. Accordingly, completion of college represents the final stage of education for most people: after graduation, students look for a job and enter the world of work.

Education Focus: American Educational System

In this post I want to give you an introduction to the American Educational System. We’ll start off with some general information.

The United States has compulsory education. This means that children are obligated to attend school for a certain number of years, for a specific age range. The actual ages depends on which state you live in. Generally, children in Illinois must attend school from the ages of 7 to 17. The school may be public or private.

Some children attend a pre-school (nursery school) prior to attending Kindergarten. The pre-school format varies greatly, but generally is only a few hours a day, a couple days a week, since the children are as young as 3 or 4 years old. Pre-school is not mandatory, although some states are considering adopting “universal pre-school” legislation. This would make pre-school available for all children, but it would not necessarily mean that all children would be required to attend.

Most children begin attending school by entering Kindergarten at age 5 or 6. Like pre-school, Kindergarten not mandatory, and is not full-time. Kindergarten is generally only a half-day of school; some children attend in the morning, while others attend in the afternoon. The subjects that children learn in kindergarten vary, but the emphasis tends to be on social skills and reading readiness.

More formal education starts with First Grade. It is in the First Grade that children are required to attend school full-time – typically, about six hours a day, five days a week. Grades 1 – 5 are variously called primary grades or elementary grades, and a school that teaches these grades is typically called a grade school or an elementary school.

Children in Grades 6 – 8 are said to attend junior high school, or middle school. The term “middle school” is becoming increasingly more common. Junior high can be thought of as a transition from the lower grades to high school. In grade school, children stay in one classroom and are taught nearly all subjects by the same teacher. In high school, children move from classroom to classroom to take different subjects taught by different teachers. By contrast, in junior high, children move from classroom to classroom similar to high school, but the children all move together and take the same subjects.

High school represents the final stage of compulsory education. There are four grades in high school: Grades 9 – 12, with the students in each year (or class) designated according to which grade they are in. Ninth graders are in their first year of high school, and are called “freshmen.” Tenth graders, or second-year students, are called “sophomores.” Together, freshmen and sophomores are known as “underclassmen.” Students in their last two years of high school have the status of “upperclassmen”: third-year students are “juniors,” and fourth-year students are “seniors.”

Once a child has completed high school, or attained the age set forth in compulsory education laws (17 years old in Illinois), the child has satisfied the compulsory education requirements and is free. Many students, however, choose to continue their education by attending college or university.